Old Wise Men Essay

Do all old men truly possess wisdom because they can see their death on the horizon? Wisdom is a valued trait in our society today. In both King Lear by William Shakespeare and Tuesdays with Morrie by Mitch Albom, the main characters were able to acquire wisdom after undergoing trials and tribulations. However, both of these men began their quest as completely different people. Morrie always emphasized the value of family and of love, while King Lear saw these qualities that could be used to boot his ego. Morrie was disappointed by the way things were in society, while King Lear did not care much about it and accepted it the way it was. Morrie viewed death as a natural thing and an ideal way to live, while King Lear still wanted to live life as a King despite giving and dividing his land between his daughters. Regardless of being very different character wise and beliefs, both King Lear and Morrie came to achieve wisdom by experiencing the fact of life; otherwise known as death. Both of these men differed in their values when it came to the life concept. Morrie believed that it was better to perish than to live a life without love, where he quoted â€Å"If you don’t have the support and love  and caring and concern that you get from a family, you don’t have much at all. Love is so supremely important. As our great poet Auden spoke â€Å"Love each other or perish†Ã¢â‚¬ (Albom 91). This quote shows Morrie’s view of love and has the opinion that it is better to die than to live a life without love. Although Morrie grew up with little love in his life, this is the reason why he emphasized the importance of love and family to him. Contrarily, King Lear believed that family only existed to serve his needs. â€Å"Tell me, my daughters, since now we will divest us both of rule, interest of territory, cares of state which of you shall we say doth love us most that we out  largest bounty may extend where nature doth with merit challenge?† (I.I.47-53). This quote illustrates King Lear’s feeling towards family. He set against his daughters against each other for his benefit. His love was conditional, even though Cordelia was his known favourite between his daughters he warned her. â€Å" How, how, Cordelia? Mend your speech a little, lest you may mar your fortunes.† (I.I.94-95). This quote shows the fact that he believed that love in a family that is one-sided, he should only receive love but should not give any. On the contrary, Morrie’s love for this family was unconditional and a two-way street. However, Lear realized the value of unconditional love when Cordelia returned despite after disowning and cursing her but he was too late. While Morrie learned the value of love through the lack of having it earlier o in his life, King Lear  would learn it through the death of his daughter. Both cherish family and life more after coming to terms with the concept of death, and realize the trouble of their society. Both King Lear and Morrie Schwartz also had different perspectives on life and society. King Lear accepted the ranking of his society, of course, since he was the peak of the â€Å"great chain of being†. â€Å"All I ask is that you provide me with a hundred knights for my own entourage. I’ll keep only the title of king†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (I.I.136-138). This quote depicts King Lear’s view of society and that he comes before the rest of society, depriving 100 knights form society for his benefit. Morrie, on the other hand, was disgusted with how his society was so materialistic. A quote from Tuesdays with Morrie, â€Å"Do you know how they brainwash people? They repeat something over and over again. And that’s what we do in this country. Owning things is good. More money is good. More property is good. More commercialism is good†¦we repeat it and have it repeated to us-over and over until nobody bother to even think other wise† (Albom 124). This quote demonstrates the disgust Morrie has with society and how it constantly promotes materialism rather than important values such as love, which is showed in this quote â€Å"You know how I always interpreted that? These people were so hungry for love that they were accepting substitutes† (Albom 125). This quote shows that Morrie believes that people are  materialistic because of a lack of love within their lives. Furthermore, King Lear realizes the disorder of his society during his hardships. â€Å"Thou rascal beadle, hold thy bloody hand. Why dost thou lash that whore? Strip thine own back Thou hotly lust’st to use her in that kind for which thou whipp’st her. The usurer hangs the cozener. ( IV.VI.152-57). This shows both his disgust of the social customs of his time and how it favors the rich and frowns upon the poor. Lear regrets not being a just king and mistreating the poor people because he was too greedy. He bawled â€Å"Poor naked wretches, whereso’er you are, that bide the pelting of this pitiless storm, how shall your houseless heads and unfed sides, your looped and windowed raggedness, defend you from seasons such as these? Oh, I have ta’en too little care of this!† (III.IV.30-34). Although Morrie was aware of the problems within his society and always fought against them, Lear only came to this conclusion and earn this wisdom through these tribulations. Morrie and Lear had contradicting views of death before they acquired their wisdom. First of all, Lear believed that he would die as a king and even with his old age he believed death was far in the distance, proven in the quote â€Å"All I ask is that you provide me with hundred knights for my own entourage. I’ll keep only the title of king†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (I.I.136-138). Lear did not believe in preparing for his death or saying goodbye to loved ones, as he still wanted to live like a king even after diving his kingdom  and wealth. On the contrary, Morrie believed that death should be accepted in life. â€Å"Oh yes, you strip away all that stuff and you focus on the essentials. When you realize you are going o die, you see everything much differently†¦Learn how to die, and you learn how to live†(Albom 83). This quote shows that Morrie though if more people lived as if they were going to die at any moment, then the world could be a more positive place. Morrie was also very optimistic and grateful for his disease and how long he had to say goodbye to everyone he cherished. â€Å"It’s horrible to watch my body wilt away to nothing. But it’s also wonderful because of all the time I get to say  good-bye.† (Albom 57) On the other hand, King Lear was coming to terms with his mortality. When Gloucester asked to kiss his hand he replied â€Å"Let me wipe it first, it smells of mortality.† (IV.VI.125-126). It shows that Lear found his new humbleness and acceptance through death. Morrie and Lear both achieved wisdom by coming to terms with their deaths. King Lear and Morrie Schwartz are very much alike, although they were completely different people before they acquired their wisdom. They were both able to attain insight and satisfaction through difficult hardships and becoming aware of the problems that are in their society. They have learned that if more people are aware of death and live everyday as if they were to die tomorrow, they would have more fulfilling  and satisfying lives. Through acquiring wisdom they realized the importance of their family, and love. They only differed in respect where Lear is filled with regret while Morrie gains a higher appreciation for it. Death is something that we all must accept and Lear and Morrie finally embrace it.

Misuse of Plastic Essay

Human being plays a key role in environment as he has a capable mind and will power to do everything by the skill and technology he has developed so far. But most of his activities done for his development and welfare have been causing seriously negative impacts on the virgin environment he has been blessed with. We can prepare a long list of human activities that have been disturbing, destabilising and degrading the natural environment. The explosion of human population has enhanced the negative impacts of human activities on environment. Man has adopted such a life style which has no room for conservation and preservation of environment as he has become just a consumer in the modern world. He has destroyed many terrestrial and aquatic habitats causing numerous species of plants and animals to go extinct. He has cleared forests and has killed numerous wild animals to disturb the balance of the nature. His activities leading to pollution have been causing a number of local and global environmental problems ranging from spread of epidemics, depletion of ozone layer, global warming and climate change. The fertile land degraded by human activities has been converted into vast desert and his activities of misuse and overuse of water and reclamation of water bodies has been leading to the crisis of water in many parts of the world. Most of the fossil fuels have so far been used up by him due to whom an energy crisis is overhead. Most of the human population of urban areas has been migrating towards cities leaving agriculture aside and this is causing urban congestion, encroachment to monuments and government land on one hand the a steep fall of agricultural production on the other. Lots of wastes created by humans have spoilt the landscape and urban areas are under immense stress due to over congestion. Civic bodies in urban areas are under hard pressure to manage civic amenities and improper management of civic facilities is sure to endanger the community life. The word civic relates to the life of city or town area and amenities are features of city or town area that make the place pleasant, comfortable and easy to live in. Thus,civic amenities are features of a city or town area that make the area pleasant, comfortable and easy to live for human beings.

America “roar” for in the 1920’s Essay

In America, the 1920’s were considered to be a ‘roaring’ time for all Americans. However, it seems to be that this ‘roar’ was an illusion for some Americans. This time was known as Americas ‘age of excess’. In 1921, the gross national product was $74 billion, by 1229, it was $104.4 billion, but how much of this was affecting all Americans. Within this essay, I will be looking at different actions, which affected different people in different ways. For example: while the rich got richer, the poor made very little headway, with many families becoming poorer in the 1920’s. By the end of the 1920’s the number of people living below the poverty line (those who do not earn enough to buy food, clothing and basic shelter) had increased to an estimated 42 percent of the American population. Many people through out America thought alcohol was harmful and dangerous and welcomed the introduction of prohibition. In 1919, after the First World War, they got what they wanted. Congress (the American parliament) passed the 18th Amendment to the Constitution. The 18th Amendment stated†¦ â€Å"†¦after one year the manufacture, sale of, transporting of intoxicating liquors for beverage purpose, the importing and exporting of such liquors is hereby prohibited.† The Volstead Act, which was passed the same year, gave the federal governments the power to enforce prohibition, and then backed the 18th Amendment and from the 16th January 1920, the USA went â€Å"Dry†. The people who opposed alcohol argued that it caused social problems such as violence, crime, poverty and sexual promiscuity. They believed that when it was banned, then America would be a better, healthier and a more moral place to live. There were many organisations, which led campaigns against alcohol. They included The Anti-Saloon League of America and The Women’s Christian Temperance Union. Therefore, with the introduction of prohibition they had got their way. In some individual states, prohibition laws were already being enforced. There were thirteen totally â€Å"Dry† states by 1919, and many other states had introduced some kind of control on the sale and manufacture  of alcohol. After the First World War, because many of America’s brewers were of German descent there was a lot of anti-German feeling and campaigners were able to argue that it would be patriotic to close the brewers down. Therefore, a decline in the amount of alcohol being produced appeared. Prohibition wasn’t something that happened overnight, there had been a gradually build up to it. Even though prohibition seemed like a good idea in theory, it had almost the exact opposite effect from what it intended. Instead of reducing the crime rate, it managed to increase it, and even more people were drinking alcohol. Prohibition forced the general public to act illegally to get the much-wanted alcohol. This illegal alcohol was expensive, the rich were able to have it delivered to there homes, but most people by the end of the 1920’s were making alcohol at home in illegal stills and was know as ‘moonshine’. The homemade alcohol was often dangerous and could cause blindness, serious illness or even death. Some alcohol was still being produced legally for industrial processes (within hospitals etc), and even though the government added poison deliberately to this alcohol, much of it went missing. The stolen alcohol was resold for drinking purposes, and as a result, the rate of alcohol poisoning rose from 98 in 1920 to 760 in 1926. Smugglers or ‘Bootleggers’ as they were often known, brought illegal alcohol supplies into cities. They often smuggled rum from the West Indies and whiskey often crossed the river from Canada to Detroit. It soon became big business and a lot of money could be made from it bootleggers organised themselves into gangs to transport the alcohol and these gangs soon became rich and powerful. The profits were so great that people would risk imprisonment. Now that there was alcohol entering the country, Americans wanted somewhere where they were able to drink and socialize at the same time, so illegal drinking saloons called ‘speakeasies’ started to appear. Before prohibition there had been 15,000 legal saloons in New York, by 1932 there were around 32,000 speakeasies in the city. Bootleggers or gangsters often ran these speakeasies. The biggest affect that prohibition had on American society was the increase in organised crime. When the demand for illegal alcohol became apparent,  gangsters saw a way to make a lot of money. Every city has its own gangsters. Dutch Schultz ran New York, Chester La Mare ruled Detroit and Dion O’Banion controlled Chicago. Dion O’Banion sang in the choir of the Holy Name Cathedral and the headquarters for his gang was his flower shop, but O’ Banion still murdered at least 25 people. Like many gangsters, he became very rich through bootlegging liquor. He controlled most of the bootlegging business in South Chicago while another gangster John Torrio controlled the whole liquor trade in North Chicago. Rival gangs fought with each other for the rights to supply speakeasies with alcohol. This rivalry often caused huge confrontations between the gangs, many gang members were killed and alcohol supplies hijacked during these confrontations. Unfortunately it wasn’t only gang members who got hurt, if you were associated with gang members, a friend or sibling for example, then you’re life was often in danger. Hundreds of innocent people lose their lives because they managed to be ‘in the wrong place at the wrong time’. In Chicago alone, there were 227 gang murders between 1927 and 1931, which no one was ever convicted for. Gangsters were able to take control of cities by bribing local policemen, judges and politicians. This meant that gangsters could operate with little fear of arrest. The most notorious city that was ruled by gangsters was Chicago, where the Mayor ‘Big Bill’ Thompson was known to be a close associate of Torrio and his new partner, who would become one of the best-known gangsters of all time, Al Capone. Torrio and Capone had gained control over him by offering huge bribes. Consequently, Big Bill did not interfere with the gangs activities and he sacked any city officials who caused problems for Torrio. In addition, many of the badly paid police force were also willing to accept bribes to keep out of their business. The aim of prohibition was to stop things like violence, crime, poverty and sexual promiscuity which people said alcohol caused. , But instead of stopping these things, it increased them. There was a rise in organised crime and violence related to it. With the introduction of prohibition organisations like The Anti-Saloon League of America and The Women’s Christian Temperance Union, who opposed to alcohol got what they wanted. In  addition, the prohibition era ‘roared’ for bootleggers and gangsters, who were making a huge fortune on supplying the alcohol to the general public. The prohibition era did not ‘roar for the general public, they were forced into breaking the law, meaning they faced the fear of arrest and they also had to pay extortionate prices for the illegal alcohol. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was notorious for stirring up hatred and prejudice against anyone who did not fit their ideals. After the American civil war, in the mid-19th century, a terrorist organisation was started in the southern states, to try to maintain white supremacy over the newly freed black slaves. The Klan did it best to terrorise blacks who tried to take part in local politics. There name comes from the Greek word Kuklos meaning circle. The members of the group wore white robes and pointed hoods to conceal their identities. In time, the Klan died out, until 1915 when William Simmons started up the Klan again. He added a new list of target for the Klan’s hatred, as well as blacks: Jews, Catholics, homosexuals, foreigners and anyone of liberal views. By 1925 the Klan had 5 million members, and it’s were members were not just in the southern states, but those outside the southern states were more anti-catholic then anti-black. One American magazine, the New York World wrote a report on the Klan’s activities, it found out: there had been 5 kidnappings, 43 orders for Negroes to leave town, 27 tar and featherings, 41 floggings, 1 branding with acid, 1 mutilation and 4 murders. In many ways, the beliefs of the Klan were like those of the Nazis in Germany and the fascists in Italy. By the end of the 1920’s the Klan’s membership had gone into decline, its reputation was undermined by a number of scandals. This included the conviction of D.C Stephenson, the Klan leader of the state of Indiana; he was convicted for the abduction, rape and multination of a girl who later killed herself. His actions stunned America, it shocked most Klansmen and millions left the Klan because of it. The Klan’s influence rapidly died and soon the movement collapsed, but did not die out altogether; there are still some Americans who belong to the Ku Klux Klan. During the Klan’s era, it is easy to see who it didn’t ‘roar’ for, anyone who was on the Klan’s list of targets. This meant Jews, Catholics, homosexuals,  foreigners, anyone of liberal views and of course black people. This era ‘roared’ for people involved in the Klan, they were part of a club and were reigning supreme over those on their hate list. The biggest concentration of black people was in the southern states; they were either labourers or ‘sharecroppers’ (they paid a share of their crops to landowners). Three quarters of a million black farm workers lost their jobs during the 1920’s, due to farming depression. Many made the journey northwards to find work in the bigger cities. By the end of the 1920’s 25 percent of black people were living in cities. There were great opportunities for blacks in the cities, but they were still faced with discrimination and were forced to live in great poverty. In Harlem in New York, blacks lived in poorer housing, but paid a higher rent. In Chicago, blacks suffered great prejudice from longer-established white residents; if blacks attempted to move away from the black belt to adjacent neighbourhoods, they got a very hostile reception. They also got a similar reception from the poor white residents. In Chicago again, if blacks attempted to use playgrounds, parks and beaches in the Irish or Polish districts they would be set upon by gangs of whites who referred to them selves ‘athletic clubs’. This resulted in the black communities in the northern cities were in ghetto areas, where one racial group was concentrated and others were excluded. Sixty percent of black women worked as low paid domestic servants in white-households. Car factories hired blacks in small numbers: but most owners operated an all white policy. Also through out the 1920s the black Americans had the Ku Klux Klan after them. Through out the 1920’s there is suddenly an interest in a lot of black culture. The popularity of Jazz music had turned many black Americans into media figure, and soon the Black neighbourhood in Harlem, New York because a centre of musical creativity. On performer, Paul Robeson managed to fight back against the prejudice to become one of America’s most celebrated performers. The 1920’s have been called the ‘Jazz age’ due to the fact that black music, whether it was jazz, soul or blues, was dominate over all other music at the time. This music had arrived in the northern cites at the time of the great black migration from the southern states. It had a huge effect on the young, but older people saw it as a corrupting force linked to sexual  excess. The music fed into popular music, dance halls and stage musicals. Magazines like the Messenger, the Crusader and Challenge put forward a black viewpoint on America at the time. Through the form of books and poems, there was also a rise in black pride. Black poets like Lansten brown and Sterling Brown helped to raise the profile of black writers. Some blacks started to stand up to the prejudice, and doing their own thing. Marcus Gavery was the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association in New York, which spread, to most major American cities. They encouraged blacks to take pride in who they were. It also helped blacks to set up their own businesses and by the mid 1920’s there were UNIA restaurants, grocery stores, laundries and even a printing works hop. The 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for all black Americans, some, like those involved in the music scene did give some blacks recognition and this meant they were able to earn a little more. But it didn’t matter what they did, black Americans through out America suffered from prejudice and discrimination, if jobs had to be cut then blacks would lose theirs first, they were forced to live in poorer conditions etc. Overall the 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ era for black Americans, but this was not a new thing and had been going on for years before 1920’s and would for quite a few years afterwards. The 1920’s were known as America’s ‘Jazz Age’, which during this time the mass entertainment industry flourished. Music, cinema and sport gained popularity during this time. The film industry had begun before the First World War, but its popularity soared during the 1920’s. Audience numbers more then doubled during this time and by 1929 it was estimated that about 95 million Americans were going to the cinema per week. Hollywood in California became the centre of the film industry. It was here that great movie companies like MGM, Warner Brothers and Paramount had their studios and produced the films, which were captivating the American public. These companies were making huge amounts of money as the popularity of going to the cinema increased. From the 1920’s thousands of wannabe film stars were pouring into Hollywood in hopes of  getting into the movie business. The first early films were ‘silent movies’ and people like Gloria Swanson, Clara Bow, Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Rudolph Valentino and Mary Pickford became stars of the silent screen. As the films were silent, cinemas would hire piano players to play the backgro und music during the film. Then in 1928 the first ‘talkies’ were made and film was no longer silent. This introduction was good for the movie companies as more people were going to see their movie, but not for all silent movie actors. Many of the actors who stared in silent movie may have looked good but a lot of them had terrible voices or, so with the introduction of ‘talkies’ they were losing their jobs. The American movie industry was going strong and would only start to decline with the introduction of television after the Second World War. Not everybody approved of cinema; many people were worried by the impact of the movies especially on the morals of young people. Many older Americans were horrified by the much ‘freer sex’ of the 1920’s and the movie industries blatant use of sex symbols like Rudolph Valentino and Clara Bow. These older Americans were shocked by the seeming lack of morals in Hollywood films and in private lives of some of the movie stars. Many people in the movie industry feared that the many Hollywood scandals would be the e nd on the motion-picture industry. Scandals like the mysterious death of a young girl at a party given by Fatty Arbuckle (a famous comic film star). This lead to a call for censorship, but Hollywood got in first by setting up the Hays code which specified that: ‘no film shall be produced which will lower the moral standards of those who see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience shall never be thrown to the side of crime, wrong-doing, evil or sin.’ Nudity was also not allowed and the length of kisses was restricted to no longer then ten feet of film. Therefore, each kiss scene had to be shot twice, once for the American audience and one to be sent over for the European audiences. Even the poor were able to join the movie craze. In Chicago, there were hundreds of cinemas showing four performances a day. The working people spent more then half their leisure budget on going to the cinema, even those who were so poor they were getting Mothers’ Aid Assistance went often. It only cost 10-20 cents for a t icket. The beginning of the 1920’s ‘roared’ for movie companies like MGM, Warner  Brothers and Paramount who were making huge sums of money from the movie craze. Up to 1928 silent film star were making a lot of money, but after the first ‘talkie’ was made many lost their jobs because even though they had good looks they did not have good voices need for these new films. Also going to the cinema was accessible to nearly everybody, even the poor, because it was so cheap. There was some opposition from older people who felt that there would be a negative impact on the morals of young people. The 1920’s were an era of great change for women. During the First World War, millions of women had taken over jobs that previously, had been exclusively for men, proving that they could do any job just as well as a man and the money they earned gave them new independence. After the war, during the 1920’s, even more women started to work. With this new financial independence, which had been unknown in the past, meant that they no longer had to live at home or rely on men to supply them with money for the things they wanted and needed. By the end of the 1920’s 10 million American women were in paid employment, a 25% increase on 1920. Even women who did not earn their own money were increasingly seen as the ones who made the decisions about whether to buy new items for the home. There is evidence that women’s role in choosing cars triggers the change in Ford’s ‘only black’ policy, and made other colours widely available. Also in 1920, wom en were given the vote; this gave them more political power. Many of the social habits and restrictions had changed since from before the First World War. For example, clothes had changed; the tight waisted, ankle-length, voluminous dresses of pre-war days had been replaced with waist less, knee length, lightweight dresses. They gave greater freedom of movement as well as being more daring. Hair, which in pre-war years would have been expected to be kept long was cut short in a new bobbed style, and this style became of liberation among women. Make up became popular and sales of it boomed. As well as women’s physical appearance, other habits changed as well. Women drove cars and smoked in public, which before the war had been frowned upon. They went out without a chaperon and as contraception became generally available, they became less dependant on men and could make their own decisions on how to live. The divorce rate rose as women became more liberated; they were less likely to stay in unhappy marriages now. In 1914, there were 100,000  divorces, while in 1929 there were twice as more. Many middle class women had more free time due to many new domestic labour-saving products like vacuum cleaners and washing machines. If they had a car (as many did at this time), then they no longer had to be bound at home. They were able to go out and do what they wanted. Flapper was a name given to a liberated urban woman. Few women would have identified themselves as flappers. Flappers represented an extreme example of the changes affecting women. Flappers could be identified by their short skirts, bobbed hair, powdered knees, bright clothes and lots of make-up. Not all people approved of these changes. Most women were not flappers, they were too busy working and raising families to go out partying. Most of these changes had a greater impact on city life then it did for those who lived in the country, where traditional values of decency and respectability still acted as a powerful restraint on how people behaved. Older people found these changes improper and threatening, they felt that things should be kept the same and had no desire for change. Most of the time the biggest opposition to these changes was from men, who did not like the fact that they were losing control, there were not as dominant now, women were taking control of their own lives an d were less reliable on men. Some men, mostly young men found these changes exciting and appealing and thought the changes were good. A lot was changing for these young middle-class urban women especially, but in some case, there was not complete change. In work, women were paid less then men even thought they did the same job. The reason women’s employment rose was because they were cheaper then male employees. In politics, women may have been given more political freedom, but they were no way equal to men. Political parties wanted the women’s vote but did not want women as political candidates as they considered them ‘unelectable’. There were only a handful of women elected by 1929, although many, such as Eleanor Roosevelt, had a high public standing. There was a lot of change for women in the 1920’s, but the change did not affect all American women. Women who lived in rural area were hardly affected by the changes, whilst middle-class women living in the urban areas felt the changes most. Some women bought these changes to an extreme (flappers) whilst most felt the changes in subtle ways, like the right to  vote and not being bound at home, having the freedom to travel away from home. There was opposition from older people and many men. In the 1920’s women were still not completely equal to men, but it was the start and the 1920’s were quite a ‘roaring’ time for most American women. Farming slumped during the 1920’s, this was because as European farming recovered after the First World War, Europe no longer needed as much American meat and grain. American farmers also had to compete with farmers from Argentina and Canada. Farm income dropped from $22 billion to $13 billion in 1928. 30 million people earned a living through farming and half of Americans lived in rural areas. New machinery had made American farming more efficient then any other in the world, but it was producing too much, more than Americans needed. During WW1 America had shipped millions of tons of grain to Europe; it had become the main market for American farm exports. However, European countries were so bankrupt after the war that many could not afford to buy American farm produce any more. To make matters worse America turned to a state of isolation, this meant that the tariff barriers were put up, so that it would be expensive for anybody who wanted to sell their produce in America, bu t America could still sell their produce to them reasonably. When the other countries realised what was happening they raised their tariff barriers, making it too expensive for America to sell their produce their, meaning farms were over-producing. America was up against strong competition from Canadian farmers who were supply grain to the world market; the price of grain dropped and many small farmers went broke. More then three million farming families were earning less then $1000 a year. As there income dropped, it became harder for farmers to pay their mortgage payments; some were evicted while others had to sell their land to clear debts. Between 1920 and 1930, the number of farms in America dropped for the first time ever. Farm labourers found themselves out of work, especially as mechanisation meant that fewer were needed for the running of farms. Many went as migrant workers to California, and others went to industrial cities, but those who remained often barely scraped a living. It wasn’t just the fact that America had isolated itself from the rest of the worlds, which made the price of grain drop; it was also the t introduction of prohibition meaning farmers were producing more grain then was needed. The 1920’s were  not bad for all farmers, big mechanised farms did well, as did the Midwestern grain growers and the California and Florida fruit growers who made a good living by shipping there produce in large quantities. Those farmers who grew luxury produce suffered less as well. The rich Americans wanted fresh fruit and vegetables through out the year, so shipments of lettuce to the cities, for example, rose from 14,000 crates in 1920 to 52,000 in 1928. America’s black population was hit badly; three quarters of a million black farm workers lost their jobs during the 1920’s. Black people would be the first people to lose their jobs, so nearly all black Americans who worked on farms, lost their jobs. Overall, the 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for those peoples involved in the farming industry, expect for a select few. People who owned large mechanised farms did well, as did fruit farmers. This time was especially ruff for the unskilled labourers, who most of the time they were black, who were fired first. It was very difficult for them to get jobs anywhere else. This era was also especially ruff on the farming families, who had farmed the land for generations, and they now had to sell it off to pay their debts. During the 1920’s America isolated itself from the rest of the world, mostly due to the fact that many American people blamed the rest of the world for dragging them into a war, which resulted in American deaths. They wanted to forget about the war and wanted to return to the policy of isolation it had maintained before the war. Woodrow Wilson had wanted to set up strong international relations but joining the League of Nations (his own idea), but many American politicians were strongly against the Versailles Treaty. Under the constitution, the Senate has to agree to all treaties with foreign countries, so in March 1920 the senate rejected the Versailles Treaty. After this, there was a Republican landslide and they took control of the House of Representatives and the Senate, and America returned to a policy of isolation. During the 1920’s, America’s relations with European countries were bad. Wilson had a policy of encouraging free trade, but during the 1920’s this was reversed. In 1922, the Fordney-McCumber Tariff act placed high tariffs on all foreign goods being sold in the United States. This meant that foreign good were very expensive and American good were cheap.  This meant that other countries found it very hard to sell in America, so in retaliation European countries placed tariffs on American goods. This now meant that American farms were over-producing with no one buying the goods overseas. The beginning of the isolation of America in the 1920 was good for farmers because more of their produce was being sold at home and abroad, but after the other countries realised what was going on and raised their own tariff barriers, the farmers suffered because they were overproducing. During the 1920’s there was a consumer boom, which was encouraged by the easily available credit system. It meant that people could buy goods like cars, fridges etc, even thought they did not have enough money to pay for the goods on the spot. Firms and companies arranged for the customers to pay by instalments or hire purchase. Hire purchase was pioneered by Henry Ford and the car companies in America at the time, hire purchase enabled the customer to buy the goods they wanted with a small deposit and pay the rest off in weekly or monthly supplements. It was a good scheme to begin with, people who didn’t have a lot of money could afford to have luxuries they would not normally have had the chance to have. Unfortunately, soon nearly everybody had a car or a fridge and didn’t need another one, but the factories were still producing large numbers of goods, this coupled with the European tariffs on American goods, the factories were now over-producing. Then in 1929, the worst possible thing happened, Wall Street crashed. Many businesses went bankrupt due to this and people were not able to pay there weekly or monthly supplements on their good, meaning the companies were not getting any money. The Wall Street Crash was the start of the great depression in America, during this time, people could not afford these goods anymore and most were taken back. At the beginning of mass-production, credit and hire purchase ‘roared’ for the general public and the businesses. The business had found a way to churn out a lot of good and were now getting a steady income of people paying on credit. The general public were able to purchase luxury good even if they didn’t have the money too. It ‘roared’ until the consumer market became  saturated, people didn’t need to buy any more good. When Wall Street crash this made it worse because not only were the general public not buying anymore good but now they couldn’t afford to pay off the credit and most companies were going bankrupt. So in the 1920’s it ‘roared’ for businesses and the general public using credit and hire purchase at the beginning, but not at the end. The 1920’s did not ‘roar’ for all Americans, for some the 1920’s were a ‘roaring’ time and for others it was not. The prohibition era did not ‘roar for the general public, they were forced into breaking the law, meaning they faced the fear of arrest and they also had to pay extortionate prices for the illegal alcohol. In addition, the aim of prohibition was to stop things like violence, crime, poverty and sexual promiscuity which people said alcohol caused. , But instead of stopping these things, it increased them. There is a rise in organised crime and violence related to it, this endangered the general public. For gangsters, bootleggers and people involved in the illegal liquor trade the prohibition era was a roaring time, they were making a huge fortune on supplying the illegal alcohol to the general public. With the reintroduction of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), the 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for anybody on their target list, for example black people. For anybody who agreed to what the KKK was about then they had no worries, they had a group to belong to and they were able to reign supreme over those who were on their target list. The 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for all black Americans. Some who were involved in the music scene did give some blacks recognition and this meant they were able to earn a little more. However, it didn’t matter what they did, black Americans through out America suffered from prejudice and discrimination. The 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ era for black Americans. The beginning of the 1920’s ‘roared’ for movie companies like MGM, Warner Brothers and Paramount who were making huge sums of money from the movie craze. Up to 1928 silent film star were making a lot of money, but after the first ‘talkie’ was made many lost their jobs because even though they had good looks they did not have good voices need for these new films. Also going to the cinema was accessible to nearly everybody, even the poor, because it was so cheap. There was some opposition from older people who felt that there  would be a negati ve impact on the morals of young people. There was a lot of change for women in the 1920’s, but the change did not affect all American women. Women who lived in rural area were hardly affected by the changes, whilst middle-class women living in the urban areas felt the changes most. Some women bought these changes to an extreme (flappers) whilst most felt the changes in subtle ways, like the right to vote and not being bound at home, having the freedom to travel away from home. There was opposition from older people and many men. In the 1920’s women were still not completely equal to men, but it was the start and the 1920’s were quite a ‘roaring’ time for most American women. The 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for those peoples involved in the farming industry, expect for a select few. People who owned large mechanised farms did well, as did fruit farmers. This time was especially ruff for the unskilled labourers, who most of the time they were black, who were fired first. It was very difficult for them to get jobs anywhere else. This era was also especially ruff on the farm ing families, who had farmed the land for generations, and they now had to sell it off to pay their debts. America readopted it’s policy of isolation, this included raising the Tariffs on good entering the country. In retaliation, European countries placed tariffs on American goods. This now meant that American farms were over-producing with no one buying the goods overseas. At the beginning of mass-production, credit and hire purchase, it ‘roared’ for the general public and the businesses. The business had found a way to churn out a lot of good and were now getting a steady income of people paying on credit. The general public were able to purchase luxury good even if they didn’t have the money too. It ‘roared’ until the consumer market became saturated, people didn’t need to buy any more good. When Wall Street crash this made it worse because not only were the general public not buying anymore good but now they couldn’t afford to pay off the credit and most companies were going bankrupt. Therefore, in the 1920’s it ‘roared’ for businesses and the general public using credit and hire purchase at the beginning, but not at the end. As you can see the 1920 roared for some people and didn’t for others. America, to the rest of the world gave the impression that everything was wonderful and everybody was happy, and for some people this was true, but for most it wasn’t and that view was in fact a mask to hide the bad things which were going on.

A Reflection on the Qur'an, Heritage and Education Essay

A Reflection on the Qur'an, Heritage and Education - Essay Example This essay reflects on his ideas on the subjects of the Qur’an, laws, and education. It agrees with the foundations that the Qur’an laid for a comprehensive viewpoint on lawmaking and legal interpretation, as well as on a modern educational system that balances religious and rational sciences. The Qur’an is the foundation of Islam, which supports it as a way of life. The Qur’an is different from other religious texts, because it focuses on the moral development of humanity in a tangible and communal way (Rahman 2). It is different from Buddhist and Taoist texts that tend to be metaphysical or individualist in orientation. The Holy Bible of Christianity also attempts to morally guide Christians as individuals and as a community, but it does not attempt to affect the legal and political dimensions of human living. The Qur’an, on the other hand, is a blueprint not only for individual living, but how individuals should live together. It is a practical a nd moral guide for numerous issues, including peace, war, and various other public and private affairs (Rahman 2). This paper believes then that the basis of saying that Islam is a way of living is because the Qur’an provides for the direction of that way of living. In Christian societies, the Church and the law are separate, and so are the Church and legislative and executive functions of society. Muslim jurists, on the contrary, use the Qur’an to find answers to both historical and present-day legal questions and cases (Rahman 2). The idea is that God lives through the words of the Qur’an and to follow it completely entails that Muslims should believe in and depend on the Qur’an completely. This way, they truly fully surrender to Allah through living the Qur’an in every aspect of their existence. This essay agrees with Rahman that one of the main problems with present Islamic jurisprudence is the failure of jurists to have a unified reading of th e Qur’an, which leads to an atomistic and insufficient understanding of the verses and the entire Qur’an itself. Rahman criticizes the deductive reasoning used on the Qur’an, such as using qiyas, or analogical reasoning, because it reduces it to its parts, instead of using the parts to appreciate it as a whole (Rahman 2). Like Rahman, this essay believes that to properly read the Qur’an, people must go beyond literally reading the verses, and instead, they must read it in relation to the whole of the text too. In other words, the process starts from the specific and then goes to the general goals and values of the text. Rahman is concerned that by diving the text into verses, they will have unintended legal and religious interpretations (Rahman 2-3). In order to properly read the Qur’an, this paper believes too that the thought systems must come from it, and not from external sources, like what the Sufis did (Rahman 3). This way, fundamental ideas and thought structures will be derived from the Qur’an itself and not from the outside, which are forced on the Qur’an instead (Rahman 3). Rahman calls his process as a new hermeneutical method that highlights the cognitive aspect of the Qur’an (4). It consists of studying the Qur’an using its text, instead of relying on external resources to make sense of it. For me, it means that interpreting the Qur’an does not require outside sources, but an analysis of what the text means in its parts and then as a whole. The idea is to go inside the

Public-key cryptography and information security Essay

Public-key cryptography and information security - Essay Example Public Key Cryptography (PKC) uses a key with two elements, a "public key" and a "private key", for the implementation of an encryption algorithm that doesn't require two parties (sender and receiver) to first exchange a secret key in an attempt to carry out the process of communication. In this scenario, the public key part is used for encryption entirely at the receiver side, whose private key part is applied for decryption. However, in order to make this communication safe it is necessary to make sure that only the intended receiver is able to access the private part of the key. Moreover, this concept is also used in elegant implementation of digital signatures (Tschabitscher, 2011) and (Adleman, Rivest, Shamir, & Williamson, 2010). Public key cryptography is considered as extremely protected for the reason that it does not require a secret common key between the receiver and sender. However, other encryption methods and technologies that utilize a single common key to both decryp t and encrypt information depend mutually on both parties (sender and receiver) in order to make a decision about a key ahead of time exclusive of other parties finding what that key is (Kayne, 2011). The most important benefit of PKC is its excellent security and ease of use. In addition, PKC is very useful in implementing secure algorithms since there is need to have an identical key for both parties (sender and the receiver).

Effects Of Society On The Development Of A Homosexual Research Paper

Effects Of Society On The Development Of A Homosexual - Research Paper Example However, the general attitude that the society has toward gay men or lesbian women continues to be negative. Most homosexual individuals do not get the support or acceptance that an individual of regular sexual orientation would get. This perhaps is the reason why most homosexual individuals are subject to a high degree of trauma and mental stress in the process of accepting and living with their sexual orientation. Majority of society believes that homosexuality is a choice, causing them to be judgmental toward those who experience same sex attractions. This paper discusses the effects of society on the development of a homosexual, analyzing the problems faced by them through different stages of life. In the beginning stages of life or during childhood, there are no traces or hints that would reveal sexual orientation, meaning it would simply not make sense to try and analyze the emotions and feelings experienced by a homosexual in the stages of childhood. Studies on the causes of homosexuality have not shown any connection between sexual orientation and history of sexual abuse. This would rule out the possibility that sexual abuse in early ages could be accounted in the process of understanding the causes of homosexuality, thereby making an analysis of the childhood face unnecessary and rather pointless. Sexual orientation would not be evident, nor will it be talked of or noticed at such an early age. The individuals would not realize it until later, while some others even live in conflict with their sexual orientation, unable to accept it or admit it. The stage where the individuals begin to feel or rather realize that there might be some difference in how they regard themselve s as a sexual being or the attraction that they feel towards a person is early adolescence. It is in this stage that slight changes occur in their emotions and feelings when compared to those who are heterosexual or straight. By this time however, the society has

Why would a firm choose to trade internationally, reasons and the plan Assignment

Why would a firm choose to trade internationally, reasons and the plan - Assignment Example Your assignments requires that you utilise at least six references in addition to your text, preferably including some journal articles. You may use no more than two URL Websites (This does not refer to journal articles) Background: Content  Incontinence (CI)  is an Australian  Biomedical Company.  It is a third  generation  offshoot business of  a  family controlled company. The founders, two German  migrants with exceptional engineering skills  have  pioneered  plastic  injection  moulding in  Australia and have  a worldwide  reputation for  their  injection  moulds. They supply  industry  worldwide with  their products manufactured to precise specification in Australia. They  have followed the  Mittelstand  philosophy  of  Germany's  manufacturing sector. Two third generation  members of  the family  have reached the  pinnacle  of surgery  and  pioneered  new surgery  and techniques to treat  patients su ffering from  bladder and  urinary  tract illnesses and also from prostate  problems including cancer.  Their  most recent  treatment  treats  incontinence  by inserting  an artificial sphincter around the  urinary tract to allow incontinent patients  to control  the  emptying of the bladder. This is done  by  activating  a micro  chip inserted in  a flap  in the abdomen using a small device  much like a remote control for  a motor car.  ... facing the  company  is how to  internationalize this  new and potentially  huge business.  The traditional  family approach of manufacturing and exporting to specification may not be the best way.  The product  is not just the hardware (artificial sphincter,  controller, software and switching  device) but the  diagnostic techniques, the  operation, the  knowledge  and experience. Your task is to  answer the  following questions  in the context of this company Question 1: a. Why  would  a firm like  this  choose to trade  internationally? State  your reasons clearly and  concisely.   b. Describe concisely the main types of international business this firm  is likely to set up in the short term and long  term.  Give reasons for your  choices. c. What  does  the term  globalisation  means in relation to  this  business? 1. a) Incontinence is the problem where the patient has a problem in controlling the emptying o f the urinary bladder. It becomes an involuntary action where the patient complains of urine leakage (Minassian, Drutz & Al-Badr, 2003, p.1). There are many physical as well as psychological problems that can lead to it. Urinary incontinence occurs globally in huge numbers mainly affecting the female population. In a report it was found that UI was common in the white female population than in the black (Minassian, Drutz & Al-Badr, 2003, p.331). Apart from the European and the African continent, it is also prevalent in the Asian countries like India. A report in the newspaper The Hindu in India showed that a huge number of the people especially females suffered from the problem. More acute was the fact that these patients felt embarrassed to consult the doctor (Varma, 2012). It is here that the Australian company CI can establish its foothold. The company

Reading Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 20

Reading Response - Essay Example Topik argues that voyages lead to the global trade which allowed other goods from Asian countries, particularly tea in becoming part of the European culture2 (Topik 2006). Topik in his article highlights that the revolutionary boom and the voyages boost the trade of cheap drug food like tea in the European region. With the passage of time, people become excessively addictive of tea. On the other hand, James states that the expansion of global trade made cheap goods like tea available to people and they became fashion symbols. I am of the view that James in the article emphasizes on the West Indians of East India Company and salves were the reason for making people addictive, whereas Topik in his article states that the control of the production of the tea plantation was the major issue, and trade of cheap products. In my opinion, both articles present the same idea that the global trade made tea one of the most significant and most widely used commodities. In addition, the adaptation and accessibility of these commodities made tea common in the people. There is a minor difference in the idea presented by the authors. James talks more tea as an imperia l commodity whereas, Topik talks about the trade and slavery as a cause for tea to become a common

Strategic Management & Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Strategic Management & Marketing - Essay Example as the process of dividing consumers or potential buyers, in market into different segments or groups in which customer share same level of interest in the comparable set of needs fulfilled by different marketing plans. Customers always segment themselves and they take no notice how companies segments them. When they choose to buy any competing product or service, they select proposition that suits them better than any other. To capture maximum market share, companies must make sure that their offerings meet the requirement of customers and should offer price that customers perceive as value for money (McDonald and Dunbar 2004). The input of winning proposition provides the detail understanding of customers include who they are and where they are found to be, as this understanding plays a vital role in segmentation process. The purpose of this report is to analyze the market segmentation and target customers of desktops, launched by Dell and it will analyze positioning of the desktop s that Dell is offering to the customers around the world. Micheal Dell founded Dell in 1984 in Texas. He has a different and unique vision of designing, manufacturing, and selling the technology. More than 109,000 employees are working for Dell around world and they are committed to make technology working hard for the customers. Dell have made many efforts to make technology more reachable to the customers and organizations around the globe and more than 120,000 computer systems shipped everyday to more than 180 countries, that is more than one computer in every second. The business of Dell designed in such a way that it caters different needs of organization, small and medium businesses, educational institutes, government bodies, health-care providers and for home users of computer. Dell is number one PC provider to big enterprises of the world and number one public sector customer’s provider in USA. The company does business with more than 95% companies of Fortune 500

Elder abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Elder abuse - Essay Example Remember that perpetrators spend months, and sometimes years, to set up their victims for exploitation. Conclusion: By the time Patricia Murtaugh was finished with her two victims, she had emptied their bank accounts of almost half-a-million dollars and used the money to open up a business and purchase homes, cars, and a boat. Her victims were broke and although Murtaugh was arrested and convicted for her crimes, it is doubtful that they will ever see their money again. Murtaugh went to jail, but most victimizers get away with their crimes. Breton, T. (January 9, 2007). A Trust Betrayed: How Two Women in Their 90s Were Fleeced by a Helper. Rhode Island News. Retrieved from http://www.projo.com/news/content/Murtaugh_01-07-07_2034LD5.21a31c1.html. We’ve all heard, I’m sure, of severe cases of elder abuse, in which older people are physically abused by younger people, usually family members. There are some horrific cases of the elderly being victimized, sometimes to the point of death. I’d like to talk about another type of elder abuse—economic exploitation, which is often just as devastating. One of the most notorious cases of economic exploitation of the elderly happened in 2007 in New York. Patricia Murtaugh swindled hundreds of thousands of dollars from two women in their nineties, women who had spent fifty years wisely saving their money. Over a period of months, she gained their trust and then stole their life savings. At first, she was helpful, providing both women with the assistance so that they could keep their independence, in the form of bill paying and much-appreciated companionship. Eventually, she was able to gain access to their finances, a common approach of many a victimizer. This kind of elderly abuse is more common than you may think. One in five elderly Americans are victims of financial exploitation, and in some areas, that figure may be as high as 50%.

Research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 6

Research Paper Example The woman-centric themes of the poems shall be dealt with in this paper. The formal innovations that these poets have made in their poetry shall also be an important part of this paper. This paper shall also look at the divergences within their poetry. Obviously, even though women share many of their concerns, to say that their concerns are identical would be to reduce the complexity and depth of the issue at hand. This paper shall argue that the feminist content of these poems needs to be looked at in terms of the need for solidarity amongst women of all ideological orientations, arising out of their experiences as women in a patriarchal society (Hoffman 48). Anne Sexton’s poem â€Å"Cinderella† speaks of the problems inherent within fairy tales. It speaks of the harmful stereotypes that are perpetuated within and through such stories. The stereotype of the wicked stepmother is one such stereotype. The importance of Sexton’s poem lies in its ability to subtly pi nt at such stereotypes and laugh at them while at the same time rebuking society for believing in them. When she says, That's the way with stepmothers. (373), she intends the reader to detect the sarcasm within the lines. This is intended to reveal the extent to which women in such stories are victimized and portrayed as villains. The reference to the ball as a â€Å"marriage market† (373) is another instance when events that are considered important in popular imagination are deconstructed and viewed as events with social and economic significances. Sexton continues with themes of relevance to women in â€Å"Her Kind† where she expresses solidarity with women of another era. She refers to witch-hunts that have taken place in history, arguing that ‘witches’ were just women who were different from what a patriarchal society wanted them to be. Sexton herself was considered to be a woman different from conventional models of femininity. This may have led her to express her solidarity with other marginalized groups of women from history. Greg Johnson concurs with this view in his review of Diane Wood Middlebrook’s biography of Anne Sexton (408). Sexton repeatedly uses the line â€Å"I have been her kind† (405) in order to emphasize the importance of such solidarity. Her life is important here also because it reveals how difficult it is for women, even famous poets, to lead their lives in a patriarchal society. The self-positioning of female subjectivity in Sylvia Plath’s poetry spans across the subjects of sexuality, history, kinship and heavily politicised and gendered notion of rationality. The focus of the essay shall be on â€Å"Daddy,† â€Å"Lady Lazarus,† and â€Å"Metaphors.† In â€Å"Daddy† one finds the coalescing of the identities of her father and a tyrannical political leader. Owing to the immediate historical backdrop of the poem, the Second World War, one may well speculate t hat the reference here is to the Nazi regime of Adolf Hitler. The analogy between her father and Hitler points to the collusion between patriarchy and dictatorships. It is against the Nazi ideal of racial purity that the speaker establishes her own identity as proudly hybrid when she says â€Å"With my gipsy ancestress and my weird luck/And my Taroc pack and my Taroc pack/I may be a bit of a Jew.† (631) This repudiation of purity enables her to construct her identity outside the rigidly deterministic

To Kill a Mockingbird Racial Differences Essay Essay Example for Free

To Kill a Mockingbird Racial Differences Essay Essay In To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee, the main themes of racism and social inequality are caused by cultural differences. The book demonstrates the struggles associated with the cultural differences in Maycomb, Alabama during the 1940s. The cultural differences are based on the social classes and hierarchy in Maycomb. At the top of the hierarchy are the relatively well-off Finches, with regular townspeople below them. Then there are farmers like the Cunninghams, and then the poor white people like Ewells and finally the blacks. Examples of cultural differences, which cause problems for the inhabitants of Maycomb, come from almost every character. Cultural differences today are profoundly different from those 70 years ago. Racism is not as prevalent and social inequality is almost nonexistent. The first instance of social inequality comes on Scout’s first day of school. When Walter Cunningham denies Miss Caroline when she offers him a quarter for lunch, Scout must explain that Cunninghams never take what they can’t pay back. Also a very dirty Burris Ewell curses at Miss Caroline. This reflects the social hierarchy of Maycomb by showing how the Cunninghams and the Ewells poorest white people in the county. Another example of social inequality is Dolphus Raymond’s problems. The inhabitants of Maycomb see Dolphus as an outcast because he married a black woman. Marrying someone of a different race was extremely uncommon at the time. The biggest example of racism and social inequality was Tom Robinson’s trial. Bob Ewell blames Tom Robinson for the â€Å"rape† of his daughter because it would be the most believable story if a black man did it. In the courthouse there is a separate balcony for black people. Tom Robinson was also convicted guilty even after Atticus gives the jury uncontestable evidence proving otherwise. This is the nadir of racism in the county and shows how the county feels towards blacks. Cultural difference not only cause conflict between blacks and whites but also between white people themselves. Atticus and the rest of Maycomb County are at odds because he defends Tom Robinson while everybody else feels that Tom is guilty. This causes many problems for him and his family too.

Influence Of Wwi On The Home Front Australia History Essay

Influence Of Wwi On The Home Front Australia History Essay In this task your first paragraph does not need to be very long. It simply needs to make a general statement about the arguments for and against Federation. You should mention all arguments that you plan to develop in your essay. In this paragraph you should clearly explain your first argument using detailed, accurate information. It should begin with a topic sentence which clearly states the argument you are going to discuss. In this paragraph you should clearly explain your next argument using detailed, accurate information. It should begin with a topic sentence which clearly states the argument you are going to discuss. In this paragraph you should clearly explain your next argument using detailed, accurate information. It should begin with a topic sentence which clearly states the argument you are going to discuss. In this paragraph you should clearly explain your final argument using detailed, accurate information. It should begin with a topic sentence which clearly states the argument you are going to discuss. NB You should have as many paragraphs as you have arguments, followed by your conclusion. A brief paragraph which sums up the arguments for and against Federation, and makes some assessment of them. Vanessa Li 9R The Home Front During the unpredictable First World War, the countries involved were deeply affected in numerous ways, whether from economic issues to the downfall of the nations in general. One of these countries was the relatively unknown southern nation Australia, which served loyally to their mother country (Britain) and was commended on their part. Back on the Home Front in Australia, the influence of World War One and the repercussions were deep, along with the conflict going on overseas. While the all the able men were enlisted to serve in the War, the women and children were left in Australia to carry out daily routine as usual, yet women were a major factor in the Home Front, contributing to the conscription debate and public life in general. Although their usual work role was focused in the home, womens contribution in the workforce increased from 24 percent in 1914 to 37 percent for the following four years, yet this rise was mostly in the areas which women had traditionally worked in, such as clothing, footwear, food and printing but there was also a slight rise in the clerical, teaching and (shop) assistant occupations. Unions were originally hesitant to hire women to replace the mens role in the workforce as they predicted that the outcome would be bleak and undesirable. Also, as women did not fight in the War, they attempted to do as much as they could by earning jobs as stretcher bearers, car drivers and interpreters but the government blatantly refused to a llow this participation yet numerous womens organisations began to become actively involved at this time such as the Australian Womens National League, the Australian Red Cross, the Voluntary Aid Detachment, the Australian Womens Service Corps, the Womens Peace Army and the Womens Christian Temperance Union, which was the most effective organisation by having hotel hours limited in several states. This advancement in womens place in the workforce was a positive effect from the War, as there was no traditional male dominance present which allowed women to establish themselves as workers, bridging the gap between inequality, although the government did not allow women to participate in the War besides nursing, no matter how small the part. In Source 1, a man who has just returned from War is being refused an occupation as a clerk, as the manager is hiring women as their wages are lower. There are mixed messages in this cartoon, as it shows that women are no longer being shunned out of the workforce, but are still being paid less than men, despite the fact that they are doing the same jobs as a man would. From the beginning to the end of the War, the government extended its authority and was creating policies that received mixed reactions as they mostly consisted of revenue-earning schemes to subside the cost of sending the troops overseas, which ultimately affected the daily lives of Australians. Headed by William Morris Hughes, the leader of the Australian Labor Party, one of the major decisions that the government decided to pass was the War Precautions Act which gave the Commonwealth government ultimate power and control with anything related to the War such as passing laws that would have be affecting the Constitution (if the Act had not been approved of previously), raising and introducing new taxes and persecuting citizens that had an association with the enemy country without a fair trial. In 1916, Hughes (who was the Prime Minister at that time) declared a policy of conscription for those who were unwilling or morally opposed to the idea of force-fighting to maintain the strong numbers needed to support the troops overseas, as the current preposition stated that conscription was only allowed for service in Australia and so a referendum was held to decide the future of Australian troops. Many campaigns were organised and carried out, bitterly opposing the other with promises of patriotism and improved moral standards for Hughess side, while the other fought back declaring that the men that the government had sent overseas were condemned to kill and die and consequentially questioning the difference they would make in the War. Ultimately, the referendum failed to achieve its proposed aim, losing by a mere 49-50 percent of the total. But Hughes again declared another referendum in 1917 on the controversial issue and yet was defeated again. The conscription debate was one of the most heated arguments in Australia during World War I, with many opposing the idea of sending the troops into foreign land where they had no aid in their quest, whilst others rejected the notion with patriotism and fighting to establish Australias identity in the world, yet the overall decision was the same for both referendums: conscription was rejected in Australia which saved many troops from death if they were forced to go fight for their country. In Source 2, the figure of Death, the Grim Reaper, is standing over a man who is in his decision whether to vote for conscription or not. This cartoon portrays conscription as a completely undesirable choice, showing that if chosen, the outcome would be something as worse as death itself. It is also a metaphor for the events ahead if conscription was allowed; the troops being killed and if this law was passed. During the War, Australias economy was slightly unstable but not entirely affected; the raw materials found in regional and local areas were of high value yet there was a centralised taxation to compensate for the expensive send-over of the troops, just when there was a boom in the workforce of women. The taxing was also influenced by the need of a stable government and the income tax for workers, which increased the cost of standard living for ordinary Australians with regular staples being overpriced and also the new introduced taxes to cope with as well. The working-class were affected the most, as they believed that they were exploited during the War, working overtime with the anxiety growing for those at War. After the War, the workforce was challenged by the younger generation of men and veterans who had returned that were plagued with psychological/welfare/health problems which consequentially led to the decrease in industrial activity, with the loss of life affecting the work force and the economy altogether. There was also the issue of the infiltration of enemy aliens in Australia, which were the foreign citizens that were currently residing in the country as they were considered as the adversary in the War and were forced into intern camps/ prisons, until they were no longer seen as enemies. This revelation affected mostly the German population in Australia, even those who were trusted and fit in, as they were victimised and imprisoned yet they were seen as the top respected nationality due to their race in the White Australia policy, with the British at the top of the ladder and the Germans following closely by. Any publication or anything German-related that was featured in Australia, including towns and even the German-sounding names, were prohibited. After the War dissipated, the prisoners were released and no longer considered an enemy, yet they retained a hostile attitude towards Australia for the successive years as a minority were deported but many managed to escape persecution. In Source 3, an Australian child is persuading his mother to choose the decision that will not affect the family lifestyle, appealing to all the Australian citizens that numerous families will be incomplete if this preposition was allowed to go ahead. If that particular vote was given the go-ahead, many Australian fathers would be missing from society and consequentially earning many single-families a harder life. Overall, the influence and effect of World War One deeply impacted the Home Front in Australia with the damaging issues of the economy, the positive and negative effects of women in the male-dominated workforce and the hostility to those in Australia who were convicted of fraternising with the enemy. SOURCE 1: Caption: A man who has just returned from War being rejected from employment as womens wages are lower than a mans. Sign: Vacancies for Female Clerks, Wages: 25 shillings Per Week Origin: Cartoon from The Worker, 10 February 1916. Website: http://www.anzacday.org.au/history/ww1/homefront/women.html SOURCE 2: Caption: The Grim Reaper, represented as Death, stands over a man who is voting. Text: The Death Ballot, Polling Day, December 20, VOTE NO, (unintelligible text) Origin: Cartoon from the The Worker, 7 December 1916 Website: http://www.anzacday.org.au/history/ww1/homefront/homefront.html SOURCE 3: Caption: A child is pleading for his mother to vote YES in order not to force his father to War. Text: Australian Nationalists, Married Men are EXEMPT if the Government Proposals are CARRIED, but if they are REJECTED, ALL will have TO GO. VOTE YES MUM, or else theyll take DAD. VOTE YES. Origin: (Unintelligible text in lower left hand corner) Website: http://www.anzacday.org.au/history/ww1/homefront/homefront.html

The Positive Research Paradigm

The Positive Research Paradigm A paradigm can be defined as a set of shared assumptions about some aspect of the world. A research paradigm directs our approach towards research by defining the ontology and epistemology of our research. That is, a paradigm denotes its members shared premise regarding the nature of reality, the purpose of research and the form of knowledge it provides. (OATES, 2007:282; LEE, 2004:5) Lee (2004:5-6) notes that research paradigms can be separated by their various ontologies and epistemologies. A paradigms ontology encapsulates the researchers view of what the real world is. An ontology flows to one or more epistemology. Epistemology is the over-arching process by which a school of thought performs its logical and empirical work. Epistemologies are usually labeled to be either quantitative or qualitative. Again, and epistemology is divided into several lower levels of methodology which is he more specific manner in which research is conducted. The devices defined in each methodology are called methods. The positivistic research paradigm, or scientific method, is an approach towards research founded on the premise that our world is defined by a set of regular laws or patters, and that we can investigate these laws objectively (OATES, 2007:283). Lee (2004:8) defines the positivism paradigm as one in which theory is typically provided as a set of related variables express by some form of formal logic, proven empirically to be significant. Positivism is term used to characterize a specific research position in which scientific theory is grounded on objective empirical observation. Positivism offers predictions based on the knowledge of laws that connect specific outcomes with specific initial conditions. (ROMM, 1991:1). 2. Comte and Popper on positivism The positivistic school of thought can be found in early work of such as Bacon, Galileo and Newton (OATES, 1992:283). Auguste Comte and Karl Popper contributed significantly towards systematizing, clarifying and formalizing the arguments posed by earlier authors (ROMM, 1991:1; LEE, 1992:8). Comte was born in 1798, just after the French revolution which characterized a period of social and political revolt against aristocratic rule in European. At this time positivistic philosophy has already filtered down to the physical sciences but it was yet to reach the social sciences. Comte became concerned with finding theoretical and practical solutions to the social anarchy of the period. He argued that the social research will only be able to serve as moral compass if it was to become a science. (ROMM, 1992: 10-11) Popper, born in 1902, grew up in a socialist pre-Viennese society which was characterized by doctornistic views as opposed to critical thinking. Popper was intrigued by Einsteins approach to theorizing. Einstein regarded his own theory as plausible only if it failed critical tests. Popper became convinced that the only way to build strong theory was to define critical test that could refute the theory but never verify it. (ROMM, 1992: 28-29) ROMM (1992:9-97) defines positivism with reference to the original writings of Comte (1975) and Popper (1992). He discusses this philosophy on the grounds of its definition of knowledge, the logic that governs its investigation, the methods used in investigation and the practical utility of knowledge: 2.1. The definition of knowledge. Comte criticized theological and metaphysical view of the world. According to the theological view all abnormalities in the universe is the direct and conscious intervention of a supernatural agent, while the metaphysical view describes all phenomena as the reaction of some abstract forces, real entity or personified abstraction being invoked. Comte regarded this as untrue and incompatible with science. Comte defined phenomena as being governed by set natural laws which, if known, can be used to predict the outcomes. These natural laws state under which circumstance we can expect to encounter a certain outcome. We can learn these laws by analyzing the circumstances that produce an outcome and drawing inference to its succession. Only by asking questions about these natural laws can we create knowledge. Asking questions about first-and-final truths is futile, because this is beyond the reach of human comprehension. Popper agrees with Comte that a natural law is an unvarying regularity that defines the outcome that flows from a certain set of circumstances. Knowledge is added by uncovering theses laws operating in the respective fields of enquiry. According to Popper, scientist should not be sidetracked by the essentialist meaning of things (first-and-final truths) but rather in observing occurrences in the world in order to find true theories and descriptions of the world. Popper also adds that even the formulation and falsification of untrue theories advances knowledge, such that by discovering mistakes we better approximate truths. 2.2. Logic that governs its investigation. Comte argues that observed facts are the only basis for speculation. We should observe and reason about facts to form knowledge, rather than sterile empiricism. Sound theorizing should guide our observations; science therefore is a cycle of theorizing, observing and building theories. The process of building knowledge starts by deducing or inducing a hypothesis from general theory or specialized theory respectively. Induction is the logical formation of generalized theory form specialized consequences. For example, every life form we know of depends on liquid water to exist; all life depends on liquid water to exist. Deduction is the logical formation of specialized consequences from generalized theory. A popular example, all men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal. Comte (1975) describes a hypothesis as the provisional supposition, altogether conjectural in the first instance with regards to some of the notions which are the object of enquiry. Simply put, a hypothesis states the anticipated result for undertaking a scientific enquiry. A hypothesis is valid if it is able to accurately predict what it is proposing given the initial set of circumstances. Science therefore is the activity of observing and disclosing the new observable consequences that confirms or invalidates our primitive supposition. We constantly incorporate new knowledge by making new observations or more profound meditations that either refute or confirm our hypothesis. Through repeated scientific endeavors knowledge comes to approximate reality. Poppers definition of a hypothesis is similar to that of Comte, but he differs in his approach of validation a hypothesis. Popper criticize Comte arguing that our experience can only falsify our theories not validate them. He postulates that a statement can only be verified as not being untrue as opposed to being true. He argues that theories can never be validated, but only corroborated. A theory is corroborated if we are, based on experience to date, unable to falsify a theory. The strength of a hypothesis lies in its openness to be tested on observations made. Popper describes science then to be the formulation of testable theories which cannot be falsified through experience. Poppers work also introduces an additional idea of probability statements which is hypothesis with some form of probability of outcome attached. Logically these statements can never be proven to be untrue. Popper argues that this hypothesis can be corroborated if they reasonably present all possible outcomes and if they cannot be falsified given reasonable and fair samples. Unlike Comte, Popper does not follow the notion that theories can be induced from specialized facts. With reference to the work of David Hume (1748), Popper argues that induction cannot be justified rationally. We should not go from fact to theory, but rather deduce our hypothesis into lower level statements which are individually testable hypothesis, which when falsified proving our original hypothesis wrong. Popper argues that we should ensure purity and objectivity in our research by subjecting our decision (on whether our most basic lower level statements should be accepted) to peer criticism. Through criticism science will become unbiased and detached from individuals. 2.3. The methods used in investigation. Compete argues that we should test our hypothesis by observing how they hold in reality. Direct observation is when we look at phenomena before our eyes. As example, in astronomy we observed that planets are elliptical with flat ends on both sides. Observation by experiments is when we observe how phenomena react to artificially modified circumstance. As example, in physics we experiment with gravity by having different particles fall to the ground. Comparison is when we observe a series of analogous cases in which the phenomena is more and more simplified. As example, imagine the comparison of the same chemical fluid under different combinations of pressure and temperature. Popper also distinguishes between experiments and observations as the two main positivistic methods of research. He does however disagree that comparison is a methods on its own, but argues that it is inherent to the other two methods. In an experiment, as example, a researcher compares the artificially induced results with the results under normal conditions. Both Popper and Comte both (referencing Francis Bacon) argue that empirical methods are superior as they provide objectivity to researchers that untimely removes bias from the science. They do however mention that observation should take place in all five senses, and though it might be possible to objectively measure an observed distance, it might be less possible to objectively measure smell. Qualifying these abstract observations should be done in a way that is unambiguous. For example, the distinct rotten-egg smell of H2S is widely cited in modern scientific literature. 2.4. Practical utility of knowledge. Comte theorized that once we know a certain outcome will always occur given conditions presented we are able to produce the outcomes we want. Theories formed for truly scientific purposes will result in knowledge to be acquired, and eventually lead to practical uses. If science is able to furnish the theoretical basis for practical action, Comte hoped, we will be able to direct social outcomes. We are able to use the knowledge of the laws that govern society to correct the negative externalities in the world. Popper argues that knowledge allow us to predict on the basis of engineering the initial conditions. With the knowledge that science provide we can plan to make their society a better and more reasonable one. We should use piece-tinkering (as termed by Popper for policy that is aimed at singular results) to mitigate unavoidable results of change rather than striving towards ideal. 3. Discussion of positivism Ramm (1991:55) defines positivism as the belief in logico-deductive theory as the idealized conception of scientific theory. Many researchers do accept the principles of the positivistic approach without explicitly noting positivism as there ontology. Positivistic research tries to find cause and effect relationships between dependent and independent variables in order to make predictions about our reality. According to the positivistic paradigm science should seek to find all the regular laws or patters in our universe. These laws and patterns in our world exist independently of any individual cognition. We can carry out experiments or observe reality to determine cause and effect relationships and test hypotheses regarding these relationships. Aim of science is to explain the variation in the dependent variable with reference to the variation in the independent variable. (Ramm, 1992:57; Lee, 2004:8; Oates, 2007:284) Our hypotheses can either be refuted by empirical investigation or corroborated. Some hypothesis will seem to be true for all observations made, and after reasonable peer review we can accept them to be true. If something is found to be false just once, it is false. In the positivistic ontology theories and explanations should be seen as the best knowledge that approximates reality at the current time. (Ramm, 1992:52; Oates, 2007:285) Modern positivism is seen as the cycle between induction and deduction (Ramm, 1992:61). o Derive hypothesis from more general statements o Test these hypothesis through observation o Generate empirical generalizations o Induce theoretical principles which should again be tested. Our observations should be tested empirically. Ramm (1992:60) notes that data collected should not be treated as formless mass; neither should theoretical categories be imposed on the data a priori. Theoretical notions become grounded in empirical observation, and data is offered theoretical treatment. Oates (2007:288) refers to this in terms of internal validity external validity. The data generated should be designed to provide the necessary insight into the research topic under observation as well as be applicable in a more general context. According to Oates (2007:285) the techniques that lie at the center of positivistic research are: Reductionism: breaking complex things into smaller things that are more easy to be studies Repeatability: researcher dont rely on the results of just one experiment, they repeat the experiments many times to be sure that their first set of results was not just a fluke Refutation: If other researchers cant repeat an experiment and get the same results as the original researchers they refute they hypothesis. The more a hypothesis can stand up to test designed to refute it, the stronger it is Oates (2007:33) lists the following possible research strategies: survey, design and creation, experiment, case study, action research, ethnography and interviews. Ramm (1992:67) suggest that the experiment and the survey are the favored methods to observe within the positivistic epistemology. The research paradigm in question is not determined by the research strategy used but rather on the shared assumptions about how to view the world. Oates (1992: 286) names five characteristics of the positivistic research ontology: The world exists independently of humans: Physical and social world exist independently from individual how the world works. Measurement and modeling: Researcher discovers this world by making observations and measurements and producing models of how it works Objectivity: the researcher is neutral and objective and impartial to observer Hypothesis testing: Research is based on the empirical testing of theories and hypotheses lead to confirmation or refutation of them Quantitative data analysis: Research often have a strong preference for mathematical modeling and proofs and statistical analysis Universal laws: A researcher looks for generalizations universal laws patterns or irrefutable facts that can be shown to be true regardless of the researcher and the occasions. Furthermore Oates (2007:287) characterizes quality positivistic research as being, Objective: Research needs to be free of bias and individual preferences. Reliable: The research instruments used need to be neutral, accurate and reliable. Repeated use of the same instrument should yield the same results. Internally valid: The research methods well chosen and designed to provide the necessary insight into the research topic under observation. Externally valid: The research should be applicable in a more general context. Positivism should not be confused with qualitative research, it does tend to follow apply quantitative research methods; but it should be distinguished on the grounds of its ontology (Oates, 2007:287). The Oxford (2010:1198) dictionary distinguishes quantitative research as being characterized by assigning values, measures or numbers to variables representing the entity under observation, whereas qualitative research describe entities in terms of adjectives. Both Popper (1992) and Comte (1975) mentions that empirical methods provide objectivity to researchers. Qualitative methods are not excluded from positivistic research though; they can be included in positivistic research if they are done in an objective, neutral and repeatable fashion. Furthermore, Oates (1992) distinguishes between four data generation data generation methods: observation, interviews, questionnaires and documents. These methods fall under the ontology of positivism when they meet the characteristics listed above. In most cases interviews are not objective and repeatable, but this research method to can be applied in the framework of positivistic research. As example, physiological ink blob tests/interviews are conducted in an objective and repeatable fashion and responses modeled and evaluated empirically. Documents can fall inside or outside the positivistic ontology as well. They can directly provide quantified facts and measures or they can be analyzed objectively. For example, Google search engines use heuristic measures to objectively measure the relevance of internet pages. Observation and questionnaires can also fall within or outside the scope of the positivistic ontology depending on how the research approaches are designed. Questionnaires with open ended questions falls under the interpretive approach, while questionnaires that require respondents to rate options or provide short true-false yes-no responses are positivistic. Whether observation falls within the scope of positivistic research again depends on whether this research instrument is objective and repeatable. 4. Conclusion The essence of the positivistic approach is systematic skepticism. The proper approach is to disprove that which researcher believe is actually true. Empirical testing can never proof without a doubt a hypothesis. Science is a method by which theories are formulated and tested repeatedly and objectively against appropriate observations. It is therefore the continuous process of deciding how to observe, code and analyses our observations, and in the light of these observations we decide to temporally accept or reject the postulated hypothesis. Primary Sources: OATES, B. 2006. Researching Information Systems and Computing. London: Sage. 341 p. ROMM, N.R.A. 1991. The Methodologies of Positivism and Marxism. A sociological Debate. Hong Kong: Macmillan. 208 p. LEE, A. 2004. Thinking about Social Theory and Philosophy for Information Technology. 26p. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.137.3685rep=rep1type=pdf Date of access: 20 Feb 2010. OXFORD. 2010. Oxford dictionary: International Students Edition. 8th ed. Oxford Press. 1888p. Significant Secondary Sources: COMTE, A. 1907. Auguste Comte and positivism edited by John Stuart Mill. 5th ed. London: Paul, Trench, Trubner. POPPER, K,R. 1992. The logic of scientific discovery. London: Routledge. 479 p. HUME, D. 1748. An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding. London

adam smith Essays -- essays research papers

Adam Smith And Jean Jacques Rousseau ADAM SMITH AND JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU. Adam Smith(1723-1790) and Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712-1770) each provide their own distinctive social thought. Smith, political economist and moral philosopher, is regarded as the father of modern economics. Rousseau, a Franco-Swiss social and political philosopher, combines enlightenment and semi-romantic themes in his work. Thus Smith’s work places emphasis on the relationship between economics and society, whereas, Rousseau focuses his attention on the social inequalities within society. Therefore, Smith and Rousseau, of the Scottish and Continental Enlightenment respectively, provide unique insights on their existing society. Adam Smith is one of the main figures in the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith’s main concern was the establishment of the free market, as laid out in his work â€Å"The Wealth of Nations†(1776). In the â€Å"Wealth of Nations†, Smith is very critical of the division of labour. The emphasis falls equally on the economic and social consequences of the division of labour(Smith, 1998:26). Moreover, â€Å"What is significant about the contribution of the Scottish Enlightenment to Sociology is the clear awareness that society constituted a process, the product of specific economic, social, and historical forces that could be identified and analyzed through methods of empirical science. Society was a category of historical investigation, the result of objective, material causes†(Smith, 1998:26). Smith...

Who Are the Women in Shakespeares Macbeth? Essay -- Macbeth essays

Who Are the Women in Macbeth? Â   Shakespeare in his tragedy Macbeth has a very limited assortment of women characters. In fact, there is only one who has a sizeable role - Lady Macbeth; the other, Lady Macduff, makes only a brief appearance, and the witchesare questionable as females. In his book, On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy, H. S. Wilson mentions the very wife-like manner in which the queen fulfilled her essential role in the tragedy: It requires an extraordinary exertion of will and persuasion from Lady Macbeth to strengthen his wavering purpose. Professor Kittredge used to point out to his classes that Lady Macbeth, in urging Macbeth to act, uses the three arguments that every wife, some time or other, uses to every husband: "You promised me you'd do it!" "You'd do it if you loved me!" "If I were a man, I'd do it myself!" But Macbeth's mind is made up by her assurance that they may do it safely by fixing the guilt upon Duncan's chamberlains. (72) Blanche Coles states in Shakespeare's Four Giants that Macbeth's wife had considerable leverage over her husband's mind: This was her opportunity to do as she had promised herself she would do after she had read the letter - to pour her spirits into his ear, to chasten with the valor of her tongue all that might impede him from the golden crown. We may be sure she took this opportunity to use all her monstrous powers of persuasion. Thus he goaded himself, or was goaded by his wife, into searing the terrible oath, whether he had any clear purpose of keeping it or not. (48-49) In Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy, Northrop Frye shows that a lady is the actual driving force in the play: That Macbeth is being hurried into a premature ac... ...900. Ann Thompson and Sasha Roberts, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997. Kermode, Frank. "Macbeth." The Riverside Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972. Knights, L.C. "Macbeth." Shakespeare: The Tragedies. A Collectiion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964. Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http://chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin. Siddons, Sarah. "Memoranda: Remarks on the Character of Lady Macbeth." The Life of Mrs. Siddons. Thomas Campbell. London: Effingham Wilson, 1834. Rpt. in Women Reading Shakespeare 1660-1900. Ann Thompson and Sasha Roberts, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997. Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1957.